The complexities of Latin American identity continue to be misunderstood as a homogenous lens continues to be placed upon it. The acknowledgement of European and indigenous influence is, for the most part, understood on a superficial level. There are many ways in which this hybridization of cultures have produced new traditions, cultures, and customs. One of the most prevalent areas in which this mixing of cultures can be seen is in religion. The prevalence of Catholicism in Latin America does not mean Catholicism exists in Latin America the same it does in Europe. Due to indigenous influences Catholicism in Latin America does not exist in the same way as it does in Europe. This can be seen in the history and reinterpretation of retablos in Latin America. We will explore these themes through the distinct styles of Mexican and Peruvian retablos and the ways in which materiality, indigenous cultures, and the physical landscapes contributed to these differences. 

The term ex-voto stems from the Latin words ex (from) and votum (vow). This directly correlates to their purpose: to offer a token to spirit  for the favors they have done. These favors  can range from curing ailments to protecting loved ones to a wide range of other miracles. The act of expressing gratitude to saints or deities has been an innate aspect of societies throughout history. These actions develop from a strong need and connection to logic and purpose within the physical world. This can be seen with the ancient Greeks, Mayans, or Incas, who made sense of natural forces through the creation of myths and rituals which would allow for them to become more active agents and participants in the world. These groups also practiced sacrifice as direct offerings to a spirit. Ex-votos initially existed as human and animal sacrifices but later transitioned into artist replications of these entities such as objects carved in the shape of domestic animals. In the sixteenth century ex-votos became a strong aspect of Catholicism. These paintings would be directly in conversation with Saints, the Virgin Mary, and Christ. Ex-votos had social implications to them as well, especially during the viceregal era of Spain when only the wealthy and elite could afford to commission these works of art. Many of these pieces were intricate and made from special materials, adding to their exclusivity. Commissioned ex-votos could range from the donation of entire churches or chapels to pieces of jewelry meant to adorn figures of the Virgin Mary. Closer to the nineteenth century, Catholic society began to understand ex-votos as the more well-known small paintings depicting miracles or small metal and wax bodily replicas of religious characters.An excellent example of the complexity and extravagance of these works can be seen in the shrine of the Virgin of Alcala located near Medina Sidonia in the south of Spain which still stands to this day. The town has a small population but is famous for its beautiful neoclassical and baroque style architecture. The location of the shrine corresponds with a 1339 battle against Abu-al-Malik Abd al-Wahid, also known as Abomelique, and his Muslim forces against Castilian forces. This battle is considered to have been almost a miracle as it was very unlikely for the Castilians to win, but after they did they created this shrine. It was believed that prior to the battle the men saw a banner of Jesus on the cross and attributed their victory to divine intervention. A stone was placed where the battle occurred and later became a foundation for the future Virgin of Alcala’s shrine (Figure 1).

The virgin sits twelve feet off the ground in her templete, a small temple of silver. Her delicately painted face is adorned with a golden crown and scepter with a golden crescent moon sitting at her feet (Figure 2). The elegant architecture frames her small stature, only three feet tall, surrounding her with golden angel figures with trumpets. This level of intricacy was very common in traditional Spanish ex-votos. An interesting aspect of this shrine is the fact that not only does it portray older ex-voto styles but, it also depicts the transition from ex-voto styles to Spanish retablos, which are rarely documented and remain dateless. 

Retablos, which translates to behind the altar became more common in the later sixteenth century. They differ from ex-votos in that retablos now existed in the form of two dimensional paintings and became a more personal form of ex-votos. Though ex-votos also were made from personal sentiments, they were both visual or physical representations of the religious figures themselves. Retablos shifted slightly in the depiction of the individuals who are making the offering into the painting with the religious figure the vow is made for. The exact hardship or miracle which the retablo was made for is now a key visual component of the painting. The event is painted as a scene with writing explaining the scene and the religious figure it is devoted to.  For this reason, retablos are more identifiable as a personal relationship between an individual and the religious figure. Within the same chapel there are many paintings of retablos which people have made and left for the Virgin. A fascinating constant of these retablos is not only their devotion to the Virgin but also the exact painted replica of this statue of the Virgin rather than the typical European depiction of the Virgin Mary with blonde hair, blue eyes, and a soft look. The statue’s exact image can clearly be seen across many of these retablos as a constant angelic presence in these scenes. These retablos were made in devotion and gratitude to the Virgin for protecting them through adversities. Many of these pertain to instances where survival was very unlikely or nearly impossible, parallel to the miracle of the Castilian forces winning their battle which formed the shrine (Figure 4). 

Spanish retablos are typically a medium sized, framed painting. We can assume that individuals commissioned these retablos based on crests surrounding the message or the inclusion of names. Based on the skill with which the images are painted in oil paint, we can also assume skilled artists painted retablos ( Figure 5, 6). Additionally we can view a loose ‘template’ or formatting that is seen across all these retablos. In all of these the Virgin presented in the upper left hand corner on a floating cloud holding the baby Jesus, there is a crest at the bottom of the retablo containing the message of the retablo, and the scene which depicts the event which resulted in the commission is to the right of the painting.

The Spanish and Portuguese brought their Catholic tradition of ex-votos and retablos to the Americas as Catholicism played a large role in the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the religious conversion of Indigenous peoples was a major objective of colonization. The communication barrier greatly affected conversion strategies as missionaries had to develop new ways of communicating Catholicism to the indigenous peoples. The visual nature of ex-votos served as one of the most effective ways to teach Catholicism without language. Without the structure of language this tradition became open to different interpretations in terms of visual styles. The hybridization of European and indigenous cultures resulted in the more well known hybridized manifestation of retablos. For the purpose of this paper we will be referring to Nestor Garcia Canclini’s definition of hybridization. Canclini’s theory of hybridization reflects on the complex identities in Latin America resulting from mixes between European and indigenous cultures in the Americas. With hybridization we acknowledge that there is no pure identity (Canclini, 1989). Not only is there a mix between identities but now there is a new entity made from the two which is the current identity. An example of this can be seen in the rise in Spanglish as an active language spoken by Latin Americans due to the migration of individuals to the United States and the cultural influences the Western world has had on Latin American countries. The acknowledgement of hybridization in Latin America is also important in understanding the trauma from colonialism which created these hybrid cultures. In the case of retablos we see the hybridization of Spanish ex-voto tradition reflected in the materiality and aesthetics of these new paintings. Where Spanish ex-votos were more extravagant in their use of gold, oil paint, and jewelry, Latin American retablos were made from much more humble materials such as tin, wood, and copper. The accessibility and low cost of materials greatly contributed to individuals’ access to these canvases for retablos. Additionally, there was no longer a need to rely on skilled or trained artists as individuals could access these materials on their own. This gave more agency in terms of different styles which retablos could be painted and created more variation and culturally significant styles (Figure 7). The portability of these materials also contributed to physical movement playing a large role in the Latin American practice of retablos. In examining Mexican retablos, the portability of retablos are greatly tied to where they are placed as well as the subject of these scenes. This contrasts the sedimentary nature of Spanish ex-votos which are meant to reside inside of the churches and chapels they are dedicated to. The movement of Mexican retablos is most notable along the Mexican-American border, where many of these retablos depict struggles immigrants have as they cross the border. The Princeton art museum exhibited a collection of Mexican retablos found across the border in a 1995 exhibition, Miracles on the Border: Retablos of Mexican Migrants to the United States*.¹

1. Book version is by Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey and cited in the bibliography. Additionally the exhibition catalog of retablos can be found here https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/files/retablos-web.pdf ↩︎

Many of these retablos detail the hardships of these landscapes as seen in a retablos which express gratitude for surviving a dangerous migration (Figure 8,9). The strong presence of retablos in Mexican culture are evident as they are carried over to Mexicans living outside of Mexico as well (Figure 10). The movement of these retablos also impacts their sizes. Most retablos are no larger than 7” x 11” which also influences the depiction of emotion within such small spaces. The intimacy of these retablos counter the proudness of Spanish retablos which hang for everyone to easily see and understand. The small sizes of retablos and their imperfectness visually also express the urgency of giving gratitude for the miracle done by religious figures (Figure 11). Many retablos are not detailed depictions with individuals being represented as loose color blocked figures. The illegible handwriting on many express strong emotions and connection to the process of making the retablo. The process of retablo making is just as, if not more, important than the finished product of the retablo. The process is the true meditation for individuals where they can feel connected to the miracle or spiritual figure they are making the retablo for. 

In contrast to Mexican retablos, Peruvian retablos have a three dimensional component to their style. Peruvian retablos existed as small wooden boxes with two doors which opened to  two or three shelves of paintings and/or small figures (Figure 12). Retablos became regularly used by the early twentieth century where they were used as part of Andean religious and practical uses. For instance, the Peruvian hybridized version of retablos must be physically present in Andean ceremonial practices such as important yearly animal branding events (Strong, 2012). Typically the retablo sits on top of the animal and many times are part of the branding process. The physical location of the retablo is indicative of the portability of the object. Similar to the Mexican retablos, Peruvian retablos are placed outside of the church and positioned in their locations of use. Retablos made for animal related practices often depict specifically Saint Mark, Saint John, Saint Agnes, and Saint Luke (Figure 13). These saints are seen as stewards of specific culturally significant animals. For instance, Saint Mark “officiates over farmers’ stewardship of Mother Earth’s bounty in its animal forms” while Saint Luke is the patron of llamas and alpacas, animals which are only native to South America (Strong 2012). Here we can see the interpretation of European Catholicism by the Peruvians and their adaptation of the Saints into their traditional practices. 

Another indigenous influence on the visuals of Peruvian retablos is the organization of the connotation of themes. The top shelf depicts one of the Saints with indigenous figures around them such as angels, flowers, or condors. The lower shelf of Peruvian retablos is referred to as the “passion” scene where the scene of the miracle or event is depicted. This shelf is divided into two parts with the left side representing the hardship faced and the right side representing the resolution or celebration. This organization is due to indigenous beliefs of the left signifying bad, the right good, and the reading from left to right in language. Peruvian retablos also feature Andean cosmological structural symbols which many times are different floral patterns (Figure 14-16). Typically these flowers line the inside of the doors making them a signature visual aspect of Peruvian style retablos and a strong spiritual component. Another strong intentional part of Peruvian traditional art is the use of bright colors. Unlike European or Mexican retablos, Peruvian retablos have strong color blocked paintings. The use of these vibrant colors carry specific meanings. In Ayacucho retablos the predominant colors used are: red to represent life, passion, and strength, yellow to symbolize prosperity, the sun, and abundance, blue to reflect spirituality and protection, green to represent fertility, nature, and hope, white stands for purity and faith, and lastly orange is meant to evoke joy, celebration, and enthusiasm (figure 17).

Through the visual analysis of Mexican and Peruvian retablos we can see the different ways in which hybridization has resulted in completely different styles of the same tradition. Despite Spanish colonizers explaining Catholicism through the same objects and images, the distinct indigenous cultures have resulted in different styles, materials, and imagery. Retablos are an excellent example of how many ingenious influences have existed in Latin America and combats the homogeneous identity many times imposed on them. It is important to understand that hybridized cultures and structures haven’t just resulted in one image of Latin America. European influences have not only influenced different indigenous cultures but in return indigenous cultures have influenced European traditions. In a way this is a reclamation of forced religious conversions and the prevailing presence of pre-columbian cultures in Latin America today. 

Bibliography

Mary Strong. 2012. Art, Nature, and Religion in the Central Andes : Themes and Variations From Prehistory to the Present. Vol. 1st ed. Joe R. And Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture. Austin: University of Texas Press. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=442468&authtype=shib&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Durand, Jorge, and Douglas S. Massey. Miracles on the Border: Retablos of Mexican Migrants to the United States. University of Arizona Press, 1995. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvz0hb6g.

de Orellana, Margarita, et al. “EX-VOTOS.” Artes de México, no. 53, 2000, pp. 81–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24313993. Accessed 23 Mar. 2025.

Sandell, David P. “Mexican Retablos.” Journal of Folklore Research, vol. 51, no. 1, 2014, pp. 13–47. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2979/jfolkrese.51.1.13. Accessed 23 Mar. 2025.

Centre for Ancient Material Religion The Open University. “The Shrine of Nuestra Señora de Los Santos in Andalusia, Spain.” Gods’ Collections, November 22, 2022. https://www.godscollections.org/case-studies/the-shrine-of-nuestra-senora-de-los-santos-in-andalusia-spain.